Nepal (Listeni/n?'p??l/ ne-PAWL Nepali: ????? ( listen)), formally the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal,
is a landlocked sovereign condition found in South Asia. Having an spot of 147,181 square kilometres (fifty six,827 sq mi) along with a
populace of approximately 27 million (and almost two million absentee staff dwelling overseas), Nepal will be the world's 93rd
biggest place by land mass as well as 41st most populous country. It is found within the Himalayas and bordered into the
north with the People's Republic of China, also to the south, east, and west by the Republic of India. Precisely, the
Indian states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Sikkim border Nepal, although throughout the Himalayas lies
the Tibetan Autonomous Area. Kathmandu may be the nation's funds and largest metropolis.
Nepal incorporates a abundant geography. The mountainous north has eight with the world's 10 tallest mountains, including the highest
point on the planet, Mount Everest, known as Sagarmatha in Nepali. It consists of additional than 240 peaks more than twenty,000 ft (6,096 m) earlier mentioned
sea level. The fertile and humid south is greatly urbanised.
Hinduism is practised by about 81% of Nepalis, generating it the region along with the highest percentage of Hindu admirers;
Buddhism is connected historically with Nepal which is practiced by 9%, Islam by four.4%, Kirat 3%, Christianity one.4%, and animism
0.4%.
A monarchy through the vast majority of its heritage, Nepal was dominated because of the Shah dynasty of kings from 1768, when Prithvi Narayan
Shah unified its many modest kingdoms. Nevertheless, a decade-long Civil War with the Communist Occasion of Nepal (Maoist) and a number of other
weeks of mass protests by all significant political parties brought about the 12 point settlement of twenty-two November 2005. The following
elections to the constituent assembly on 28 May 2008 overwhelmingly favored the abolishment from the monarchy plus the
establishment of the federal multiparty representative democratic republic.
Ne Muni
Community legends say that a Hindu sage called "Ne" established himself from the valley of Kathmandu in prehistoric times and that the term "Nepal" arrived into existence since the place secured ("pala" in Sanskrit) from the sage "Ne". This folks etymology on the name Nepal implies, "the region appeared right after by Ne".
He's mentioned to have done spiritual ceremonies at Teku, at the confluence of your Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers. also to have selected a pious cowherd to be the first on the many kings of your Gopala Dynasty. These rulers are stated to have dominated Nepal for more than five hundred a long time. He determined Bhuktaman to be the first king while in the line from the Gopala (Cowherd) Dynasty. The Gopala dynasty is said to obtain dominated for 621 many years. Yakshya Gupta was the last king of this dynasty.
Having said that, based on the Skanda Purana, a rishi termed "Ne" or "Nemuni" used to are living in Himalaya. In the Pashupati Purana, he is stated being a saint as well as a protector. He's stated to own practised meditation at the Bagmati and Kesavati rivers also to have trained there.
Nepal Bhasa origin
The term "Nepal" is believed by scholars to get made from the term "Nepa:" which refers to the Newar Kingdom, the present day Kathmandu Valley. In earlier Sanskrit resources (Atharvaveda Parisista) and in Gupta time period inscriptions, the country is referred to as Nepala. The Newars of existing working day Nepal, the inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley and its peripheries, were being referred as "Nepa" prior to the introduction of Shah dynasty.
History
Principal write-up: Heritage of Nepal
Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha
It appears that Kirata folks ended up certainly one of the first to settle in Nepal; they are stated to acquire dominated Nepal for approximately two,five hundred several years.
Ancient
Nepal is initially mentioned inside the late Vedic text, Atharvaveda Parisista to be a location exporting blankets, and in the post-Vedic Atharva Siras Upanisad. In Samudragupta's Allahabad inscription it is actually described as being a bordering nation. The 'Skanda Purana' has a different chapter referred to as 'Nepal Mahatmya', which "explains in additional specifics regarding the attractiveness and power of Nepal." Nepal is also brought up in Hindu texts just like the Narayana Puja.
About five hundred BCE, compact kingdoms and confederations of clans arose from the southern areas of Nepal. From one of these, the Shakya polity, arose a prince named Siddharta Gautama (usually dated 563-483 BCE), who later renounced his position to guide an ascetic lifestyle and came being generally known as the Buddha ("the enlightened one"). It is thought that the 7th Kirata king, Jitedasti, was to the throne from the Nepal valley at the time. By 250 BCE, the southern areas came beneath the influence from the Mauryan Empire of northern India, and Nepal in a while grew to become a nominal vassal condition beneath the Gupta Empire inside the fourth century CE. Starting within the third century CE, rulers referred to as the Licchavis governed the Kathmandu Valley and around central Nepal.
There's a very in-depth description from the kingdom of Nepal from the account from the well-known Chinese Buddhist pilgrim monk Xuanzang, dating from c. 645 CE.
The Licchavi dynasty went into decrease inside the late eighth century, likely due to Tibetan dominance, and was adopted by a Newari or Thakuri era, from 879 CE (Nepal Samvat 1), although the extent of their command above the nation is unsure. In the eleventh century it seems to get integrated the Pokhara space.
Medieval
Most important posting: Malla (Nepal)
Former royal palace at Basantapur, Kathmandu
In the early 12th century, leaders emerged in far western Nepal whose names ended along with the Sanskrit suffix malla ("wrestler"). These kings consolidated their power and ruled around the next 2 hundred many years, until eventually the kingdom splintered into two dozen petty states. Yet another Malla dynasty, beginning with Jayasthiti, emerged from the Kathmandu valley within the late 14th century, and much of central Nepal yet again arrived under a unified rule. Having said that, in 1482 the realm was divided into a few kingdoms: Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur.
Kingdom of Nepal
Major post: Kingdom of Nepal
In the mid-18th century, Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gorkha king, established out to put jointly what would turn into present-day Nepal. He launched into his mission immediately after looking for arms and help from India and getting the neutrality of bordering Indian kingdoms. Just after quite a few bloody battles and sieges, notably the Fight of Kirtipur, he managed to overcome the Kathmandu Valley in 1769. A detailed account of Prithvi Narayan Shah's triumph was published by Father Giuseppe who was an eyewitness into the war.
Hindu temples in Patan, cash of 1 of your a couple of medieval Newar kingdoms
In 1788 the Nepalese overran Sikkim and sent a punitive raid into Tibet. Kangra in northern India was also occupied by the Nepalese. In 1809, Ranjit Singh the ruler from the Sikh state in the Punjab, had intervened and drove the Nepalese military east of your Satluj river.
At its maximum extent, Greater Nepal prolonged within the Tista River while in the east, to Kangara, throughout the Sutlej River from the west at the same time as more south to the Terai plains and north in the Himalayas than at present. A dispute with Tibet over the charge of mountain passes and inner Tingri valleys of Tibet forced the Qing Emperor in Peking to start out the Sino-Nepalese War persuasive the Nepalese to retreat and fork out heavy reparations to Peking.
Rivalry concerning Nepal as well as the British East India Enterprise more than the annexation of small states bordering Nepal sooner or later led to the Anglo-Nepalese War (1815-16). İn the beginning the British underestimated the Nepalese and were soundly defeated till committing a lot more military services methods than that they had anticipated needing. They were being tremendously amazed from the valour and competence of their adversaries. Therefore began the name of "Gurkhas" as intense and ruthless troopers. The war ended inside the Treaty of Sugauli, underneath which Nepal ceded just lately captured parts of Sikkim and lands in Terai also as being the ideal to recruit soldiers. Madheshis, however possessing supported the British East India Firm throughout the war, had their lands gifted to Nepalese.
Factionalism inside of the royal loved ones experienced resulted in a interval of instability. In 1846 a plot was found out revealing which the reigning queen experienced planned to overthrow Jung Bahadur Kunwar, a fast-rising navy chief. This led to the Kot Massacre; armed clashes concerning armed service personnel and administrators faithful on the queen led to the execution of many hundred princes and chieftains round the place. Jung Bahadur Kunwar emerged victorious and launched the Rana Lineage and was later recognized as Jung Bahadur Rana.
The king was built a titular figure, as well as publish of Primary Minister was created potent and hereditary. The Ranas have been staunchly pro-British and assisted them in the course of the Indian Sepoy Rebellion in 1857 (and later in the two Environment Wars). Some parts of the Terai Location populated with non Nepalese peoples were being gifted to Nepal through the British like a pleasant gesture, mainly because of her navy aid to preserve British command in India through the Sepoy Rebellion. In 1923, the uk and Nepal formally signed an settlement of friendship, which outdated the Sugauli Treaty signed in 1816.
Nepalese royalty within the 1920s
Slavery was abolished in Nepal in 1924. On the other hand personal debt bondage even involving debtors' youngsters has long been a persistent social problem in the Terai.
In the late forties, freshly surfacing pro-democracy actions and political get-togethers in Nepal were crucial from the Rana autocracy. İn the meantime, with the invasion of Tibet by China in the fifties, India sought to counterbalance the perceived army threat from its northern neighbour by taking pre-emptive techniques to claim much more affect in Nepal. India sponsored equally King Tribhuvan (dominated 1911-55) as Nepal's new ruler in 1951 plus a new authorities, mainly comprising the Nepali Congress Bash, thus terminating Rana hegemony during the kingdom.
İmmediately after a long time of strength wrangling involving the king and the authorities, King Mahendra (ruled 1955-72) scrapped the democratic experiment in 1959, along with a "partyless" panchayat method was built to govern Nepal until 1989, should the "Jan Andolan" (People's Motion) compelled King Birendra (ruled 1972-2001) to just accept constitutional reforms and to create a multiparty parliament that took seat in May well 1991. In 1991-92, Bhutan expelled about 100,000 Bhutanese citizens of Nepali descent, almost all of whom are actually living in seven refugee camps in japanese Nepal ever because.
Bhutanese refugees of ethnic Nepalese descent who have been expelled from Bhutan within the early 1990s.
In 1996, the Communist Celebration of Nepal (Maoist) commenced a bid to switch the royal parliamentary process by using a people's socialist republic by violent implies. This resulted in the long Nepal Civil War and even more than 12,000 fatalities. On one June 2001, there was a massacre inside the royal palace. King Birendra, Queen Aiswarya, and seven other associates in the royal friends and family had been killed. The perpetrator was Crown Prince Dipendra, who committed suicide (he died 3 times later on) shortly thereafter. This outburst was alleged to possess been Dipendra's reaction to his parents' refusal to accept his choice of spouse. Even so you'll find speculation and doubts among the Nepalese citizens about who was liable.
Following the carnage, Birendra's brother Gyanendra inherited the throne. On 1 February 2005, Gyanendra dismissed the complete authorities and assumed total govt powers to quash the violent Maoist movement, but this initiative was unsuccessful because a stalemate had made the place the Maoists have been firmly entrenched in substantial expanses of countryside still couldn't dislodge the military services from various towns as well as the major towns. In September 2005, the Maoists declared a three-month unilateral ceasefire to barter.
In response on the 2006 democracy movement King Gyanendra agreed to relinquish sovereign electrical power for the men and women. On 24 April 2006 the dissolved Home of Representatives was reinstated. Working with its freshly obtained sovereign authority, on 18 May perhaps 2006 the home of Representatives unanimously voted to curtail the potency of the king and declared Nepal a secular state, ending its time-honoured formal standing as a Hindu Kingdom. On 28 December 2007, a invoice was handed in parliament to amend Write-up 159 on the structure - replacing "Provisions about the King" by "Provisions on the Head of the State" - declaring Nepal a federal republic, and thereby abolishing the monarchy. The invoice came into power on 28 Could 2008.
Republic
The Communist Occasion of Nepal (Maoist) won the most important number of seats inside the Constituent Assembly election held on ten April 2008, and formed a coalition govt which provided many of the events within the CA. While acts of violence occurred through the pre-electoral period of time, election observers pointed out that the elections themselves were being markedly peaceful and "well-carried out".
The recently elected Assembly attained in Kathmandu on 28 May perhaps 2008, and, following a polling of 564 constituent Assembly associates, 560 voted to type a brand new government, with all the monarchist Rastriya Prajatantra Social gathering, which experienced several users during the assembly, registering a dissenting notice. At that point, it had been declared that Nepal experienced turn into a secular and inclusive democratic republic, together with the govt saying a three-day community holiday break from 28 to thirty May well. The King was thereafter supplied 15 days to vacate the Narayanhiti Royal Palace, to re-open it as a general public museum.
Nonetheless, political tensions and consequent power-sharing battles have ongoing in Nepal. In Could 2009, the Maoist-led federal government was toppled and yet another coalition governing administration with all main political parties barring the Maoists was shaped. Madhav Kumar Nepal in the Communist Bash of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) was manufactured the Prime Minister on the coalition authorities. In February 2011 the Madhav Kumar Nepal Governing administration was toppled and Jhala Nath Khanal of your Communist Occasion of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) was created the Prime Minister. In August 2011 the Jhala Nath Khanal Authorities was toppled and Baburam Bhattarai with the Communist Social gathering of Nepal (Maoist) was created the Prime Minister.
Geography
Key posts: Geography of Nepal and Geology of Nepal
NASA Landsat-7 Image of Nepal. Nepal shares a lot of its boundaries with India.
Barun Valley - There are actually many such valleys inside the Himalaya established by glacier flows.
Mount Everest, the highest peak on this planet, lies in Nepal
Kali Gandaki Gorge, the deepest gorge on the planet.
Nepal is of about trapezoidal shape, 800 kilometres (497 mi) prolonged and 200 kilometres (124 mi) wide, with an region of 147,181 km2 (56,827 sq mi). See Listing of territories by size to the comparative measurement of Nepal. It lies involving latitudes 26° and 31°N, and longitudes 80° and 89°E.
Nepal is usually divided into several physiographic areas: Mountain, Hill and Terai. These ecological belts operate east-west and are generally vertically intersected by Nepal's key, north to south flowing river systems.
The southern lowland plains or Terai bordering India are part of the northern rim with the Indo-Gangetic plains. They have been formed and so are fed by about three important Himalayan rivers: the Kosi, the Narayani, plus the Karnali at the same time as smaller sized rivers rising down below the permanent snowline. This region includes a subtropical to tropical weather. The outermost choice of foothills named Shiwalik or Churia Vary cresting at 700 to one,000 metres (2,297 to 3,281 ft) marks the limit of your Gangetic Basic, on the other hand broad, lower valleys termed Inner Tarai (Bhitri Tarai Uptyaka) lie north of these foothills in many locations.
The Hill Region (Pahad) abuts the mountains and differs from 800 to four,000 metres (2,625 to 13,123 ft) in altitude with progression from subtropical climates under 1,2 hundred metres (3,937 ft) to alpine climates previously mentioned three,600 metres (eleven,811 ft). The Mahabharat Array achieving one,five hundred to three,000 metres (4,921 to 9,843 ft) will be the southern limit of the location, with subtropical river valleys and "hills" alternating towards the north of this vary. Population density is higher in valleys but notably significantly less above two,000 metres (six,562 ft) and very lower earlier mentioned 2,500 metres (eight,202 ft) where snow often falls in winter season.
The Mountain Location (Parbat), situated inside the Wonderful Himalayan Array, tends to make up the northern piece of Nepal. It consists of the highest elevations within the environment which includes eight,848 metres (29,029 ft) top Mount Everest (Sagarmatha in Nepali) on the border with China. Seven other in the world's eight thousand metre peaks are in Nepal or on its border with China: Lhotse, Makalu, Cho Oyu, Kanchenjunga, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna and Manaslu.
Nepal has 5 climatic zones, broadly corresponding to the altitudes. The tropical and subtropical zones lie beneath 1,2 hundred metres (three,937 ft), the temperate zone one,2 hundred to 2,four hundred metres (3,937 to seven,874 ft), the chilly zone 2,four hundred to three,600 metres (7,874 to 11,811 ft), the subarctic zone 3,600 to 4,400 metres (eleven,811 to 14,436 ft), and also the Arctic zone earlier mentioned 4,400 metres (fourteen,436 ft).
Nepal activities 5 seasons: summer time, monsoon, autumn, winter season and spring. The Himalaya blocks cold winds from Central Asia while in the winter season and kinds the northern restrict from the monsoon wind styles. In a land after thickly forested, deforestation is really a important dilemma in all regions, with resulting erosion and degradation of ecosystems.
Nepal is common for mountaineering, that contains many of the optimum and many difficult mountains while in the globe, which include Mount Everest. Technically, the south-east ridge around the Nepali facet with the mountain is easier to climb; so, most climbers prefer to trek to Everest by Nepal.
Neotectonics
The collision involving the Indian subcontinent plus the Eurasian continent, which started out in Paleogene time and continues currently, generated the Himalaya and also the Tibetan Plateau, a spectacular modern instance of the consequences of plate tectonics. Nepal lies absolutely in this collision zone, occupying the central market on the Himalayan arc, practically one particular third from the two,400 km (1,500 mi)-long Himalayas.
The Indian plate continues to maneuver north relative to Asia for the amount of roughly fifty mm (two.0 in) for each year. Supplied the truly amazing magnitudes of the blocks in the Earth's crust included, this is certainly incredibly fast, about twice the speed at which human fingernails increase. Given that the solid Indian continental crust subducts under the relatively weak Tibetan crust, it pushes up the Himalayan mountains. This collision zone has accommodated substantial amounts of crustal shortening since the rock sequences slide just one around a different. As a result Nepal is prone to repeated earthquakes, an important earthquake going on inside of each one hundred a long time.
Erosion from the Himalayas can be a crucial source of sediment, which flows by means of quite a few great rivers (the Indus on the Indian Water, plus the Ganges and Brahmaputra river process) for the Bay of Bengal.
he spectacular variances in elevation observed in Nepal end in a number of biomes, from tropical savannas along the Indian border, to subtropical broadleaf and coniferous forests while in the Hill Area, to temperate broadleaf and coniferous forests to the slopes with the Himalaya, to montane grasslands and shrublands and rock and ice at the top elevations.
At the lowest elevations could be the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecoregion. These variety a mosaic along with the Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests, which come about from 500 to 1,000 metres (one,600 to three,three hundred ft) and consist of the Inner Terai Valleys. Himalayan subtropical pine forests happen between one,000 and a pair of,000 metres (3,three hundred and 6,600 ft).
Previously mentioned these elevations, the biogeography of Nepal is usually divided from east to west from the Gandaki River. Ecoregions for the east have a tendency to get more precipitation and also to be more species-rich. All those to your west are drier with fewer species.
From one,five hundred to three,000 metres (4,900 to 9,800 ft), are temperate broadleaf forests: the eastern and western Himalayan broadleaf forests. From 3,000 to 4,000 metres (nine,800 to 13,000 ft) will be the eastern and western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests. To 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) will be the japanese and western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows.
Politics
Most important write-up: Politics of Nepal
Singha Durbar, the seat of Nepalese government
Nepal has viewed speedy political variations for the duration of the very last twenty years. Up until 1990, Nepal was a monarchy beneath executive control of the King. Confronted with a communist motion versus absolute monarchy, King Birendra, in 1990, agreed to a large-scale political reform by making a parliamentary monarchy with the King to be the head of state as well as a Primary Minister as the head on the authorities.
Nepal's legislature was bicameral, consisting of the Home of Associates known as the Pratinidhi Sabha plus a Nationwide Council known as the Rastriya Sabha. Your home of Associates consisted of 205 members instantly elected from the men and women. The Countrywide Council had sixty users: ten nominated through the king, 35 elected because of the Residence of Reps, as well as remaining fifteen elected by an electoral college made up of chairs of villages and towns. The legislature had a five-year term but was dissolvable because of the king in advance of its term could finish. All Nepali residents eighteen decades and more mature turned qualified to vote.
The chief comprised the King as well as the Council of Ministers (the cabinet). The chief in the coalition or party securing the maximum seats within an election was appointed as being the Prime Minister. The cupboard was appointed by the king to the recommendation of the Primary Minister. Governments in Nepal tended being extremely unstable, falling possibly via inside collapse or parliamentary dissolution because of the monarch, around the recommendation from the prime minister, in accordance with the constitution; no federal government has survived for more than two decades since 1991.
The motion in April 2006 brought a few change while in the nation's governance: an interim structure was promulgated, with the King giving up energy, and an interim House of Reps was formed with Maoist members after the new government held peace talks together with the Maoist rebels. The sheer numbers of parliamentary seats was also improved to 330. In April 2007, the Communist Celebration of Nepal (Maoist) joined the interim govt of Nepal.
In December 2007, the interim parliament passed a monthly bill building Nepal a federal republic, by using a president as head of condition. Elections for the constitutional assembly ended up held on 10 April 2008; the Maoist get together led the results but did not attain a straightforward majority of seats. The modern parliament adopted the 2007 bill at its initial conference by an overwhelming majority, and King Gyanendra was provided 15 days to go away the Royal Palace in central Kathmandu. He left on eleven June.
On 26 June, the prime minister Girija Prasad Koirala, who experienced served as Performing Head of State considering that January 2007, introduced that he would resign within the election from the country's first president through the Constituent Assembly. The very first spherical of voting, on 19 July, noticed Parmanand Jha earn election as Nepali vice-president, but neither of the contenders for president been given the essential 298 votes along with a 2nd spherical was held two times later on. Ram Baran Yadav of your Nepali Congress party defeated Maoist-backed Ram Raja Prasad Singh with 308 of your 590 votes forged. Koirala submitted his resignation into the new president right after Yadav's swearing-in ceremony on 23 July.
Prachanda speaking in a rally in Pokhara.
On 15 August 2008, Maoist chief Prachanda (Pushpa Kamal Dahal) was elected Primary Minister of Nepal, the first considering the fact that the country's transition from a monarchy to the republic. On four May perhaps 2009, Dahal resigned about on-going conflicts when it comes to the sacking with the Army chief. Because Dahal's resignation, the nation is inside a serious political deadlock with amongst the large challenges staying the proposed integration from the former Maoist combatants, often known as the People's Liberation Military, into your national security forces. İmmediately after Dahal, Jhala Nath Khanal of CPN (UML) was elected the Primary Minister. Khanal was forced to action down as he couldn't realize success in carrying ahead the Peace Practice as well as the structure creating. On August 2011, Maoist Dr. Babu Ram Bhattarai turned 3rd Primary Minister following the election of constituent assembly. On 24 May perhaps 2012, Nepals's Deputy PM Krishna Sitaula resigned.
On 27 May well 2012, the country's Constituent Assembly did not fulfill the deadline for producing a fresh structure for the place. Prime Minister Baburam Bhattarai declared that new elections shall be held on 22 November. "We don't have any other choice but to go back to the persons and elect a completely new assembly to write the constitution," he explained within a nationally televised speech. Certainly one of the principle road blocks has long been disagreement around whether or not the states which can be established shall be based mostly on ethnicity.
Nepal in addition has been noted for its latest speed of improvement, just like becoming one of the handful of nations in Asia to abolish the demise penalty plus the initial country in Asia to rule in favor of same-sex relationship. The decision was based over a seven-person federal government committee research, and enacted by way of Supreme Court's ruling November 2008. The ruling granted total rights for LGBT men and women, which include the ideal to marry.
Government
Nepal is actually a multi-party program federal republic. The Interim Structure of Nepal, 2063 has described 3 organs with the authorities.
Govt: The manager power of Nepal is vested from the Council of Ministers. The obligation of issuing basic directives, controlling and regulating the administration of Nepal lie within the Council of Ministers. The Prime Minister of Nepal may be the head with the Government. The Primary Minister appoints the Ministers. Though appointing Ministers, the Prime Minister will appoint them, within the recommendation of the involved political occasion, from among the members on the Legislature-Parliament.
Legislative: The Legislature-Parliament of Nepal is unicameral. Constituent assembly is functioning as thee legislature of Nepal at present. Legislative is composed of 601 customers. Among the them, 240 associates are straight elected by individuals from 240 constituencies. 335 users are elected as a result of proportional basis and 26 members are nominated because of the cabinet.Every one of the bills are introduced inside the parliament. Right after passing the expenses by greater part. Soon after his acceptance, it gets to be the regulation. In in this way, every one of the legal guidelines are made within the parliament.The legislative controls above the finance in the region. Legislative passes the once-a-year price range in line with which the federal government spends money in various duties.Legislative can elevate questions to any perform of your federal government. If the federal government isn't going to perform appropriately, legislative can withdraw its help and govt is dissolved. In using this method the legislative has regulate above the chief.
Judiciary: The Constitution supplies a couple of tiers of Court docket which consist of the Supreme Courtroom of Nepal, the Courtroom of Charm and the District Courts. Supreme Courtroom is definitely the Apex Court. All courts and judicial establishments apart from the constitutional assembly courtroom, are below the supreme court docket. There is absolutely no distinction concerning Criminal and Civil courtroom apart from some standard procedures. District Courtroom would be the Court docket of very first occasion on which Courtroom of Appeal listen to attraction. In addition to those typical courts there is provision in structure to ascertain distinctive types of courts or tribunals with the reason of hearing specific forms of circumstances because of the law. İn accordance with these provision you can find several Revenue Tribunals, 1 Administrative Courtroom, a single Labor Court docket, 1 Debt Restoration tribunal and a person Personal debt recovery Charm Tribunal and 1 unique court are functioning less than the respective laws. These organizations are underneath the judicial charge of the Supreme Court. There are sixteen Court of Appeal and fifteen Districts in Nepal. The Supreme Court is usually the ultimate interpreter from the structure.
Subdivisions
Main content articles: Regions of Nepal, Zones of Nepal, and Districts of Nepal
Nepal is split into 14 zones and 75 districts, grouped into five progress areas. Every district is headed by a everlasting main district officer to blame for sustaining law and buy and coordinating the operate of sector organizations from the many federal government ministries. The 5 regions and fourteen zones are:
Jap Region (Purwanchal)
Koshi
Mechi
Sagarmatha
Central Area (Madhyamanchal)
Bagmati
Janakpur
Narayani
Western Location (Pashchimanchal)
Dhawalagiri
Gandaki
Lumbini
Mid-Western Area (Madhya Pashchimanchal)
Bheri
Karnali
Rapti
Far-Western Location (Sudur Pashchimanchal)
Mahakali
Seti
İnternational relations and Military
Most important content pieces: Nepalese Armed Forces and Foreign relations of Nepal
A member of the Nepalese Quick Reactionary Pressure (QRF)
Nepal has shut ties with the two of its neighbours, India and China. In accordance by using a long-standing treaty, Indian and Nepalese residents may well vacation to every other's countries without a passport or visa. Nepalese citizens may go in India devoid of lawful restriction. Having said that, since the government of Nepal continues to be dominated by Socialists and India's by far more right-wing functions, India may be remilitarising the "porous" Indo-Nepali border, to be able to stifle the movement of Islamist teams. Nepal established relations with the People's Republic of China on one August 1955, and relations considering that are already in line with the 5 Principles of Relaxing Coexistence. Nepal has aided China in the aftermath in the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, and China has presented economic aid for Nepali infrastructure. The two nations around the world have cooperated to host the 2008 Summer season Olympics summit of Mt. Everest. Nepal has assisted in curbing anti-China protests within the Tibetan diaspora.
Nepal's military services contains the Nepalese Army, which incorporates the Nepalese Military Air Program. The Nepalese Police Power is definitely the civilian police along with the Armed Police Pressure Nepal is definitely the paramilitary drive. Services is voluntary and also the minimum age for enlistment is 18 several years. Nepal spends $99.two million (2004) on its military-1.5% of its GDP. A lot of the products and arms are imported from India. Subsequently, the US supplied M16s M4s along with other Colt weapons to overcome communist (Maoist) insurgents. As of now, the standard-issue battle rifle on the Nepalese army is the Colt M16.
Economy
Most important short article: Market of Nepal
Terraced farming to the foothills with the Himalayas.
A Rs.five hundred banknote of your Republic of Nepal. For economic factors, the watermark to the suitable however has a picture of King Gyanendra, obscured by printing a rhododendron, the countrywide flower of Nepal.
Nepal's gross domestic products (GDP) for 2012 was estimated at around $17.921 billion (altered to Nominal GDP). In 2010, agriculture accounted for 36.1%, companies comprise forty eight.5%, and business fifteen.4% of Nepal's GDP. While agriculture and market is contracting, the contribution by assistance sector is raising. Agriculture employs 76% on the workforce, solutions 18% and manufacturing/craft-based marketplace 6%. Agricultural create - typically risen from the Terai location bordering India - incorporates tea, rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, root crops, milk, and drinking water buffalo meat. Industry largely will involve the processing of agricultural create, which include jute, sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. Its workforce of about ten million suffers from a serious shortage of experienced labor.
Nepal’s economic development is still adversely impacted by the political uncertainty. Nonetheless, real GDP progress is believed to extend to practically five percent for 2011/2012. This can be a appreciable improvement through the 3.5 per cent GDP progress in 2010/2011 and would be the next greatest progress charge inside the post-conflict era. Types of expansion consist of agriculture, development, economical and other providers. The contribution of growth by intake fueled by remittances has declined given that 2010/2011. Although remittance advancement slowed to 11 p.c (in Nepali Rupee conditions) in 2010/2011 it has because greater to 37 p.c. Remittances are approximated to be similar to 25-30 % of GDP. Inflation continues to be diminished to a three-year minimal to 7 %.
The proportion of inadequate people today has declined substantially in recent years. The share of folks living underneath the international poverty line (folks earning below US$1.25 for each working day) has halved in just seven ages. At this measure of poverty the share of inadequate persons declined from 53.1% in 2003/2004 to 24.8% in 2010/2011. With a better poverty line of US$2 pounds per-capita per day, poverty declined by a person quarter to 57.3%. However, the profits distribution remains grossly uneven.
The breathtaking landscape and various, exotic cultures of Nepal symbolize substantial possible for tourism, but progress on this hospitality industry has long been stifled by latest political functions. In 2009, the sheer number of worldwide vacationers traveling to Nepal was 509,956. The Nepal Tourism Board plans to generate a brand new Meetings, incentives, conferencing, exhibitions (MICE) office by end-2012 to attract company celebrations from neighbouring nations around the world. The yield from MICE celebrations is approximated to generally be two times the quantity brought in by leisure tourism.
The rate of unemployment and underemployment approaches 50 percent of your working-age populace. Therefore many Nepali citizens shift to other nations around the world in quest of work. Top places contain India, Qatar, the usa, Thailand, the uk, Saudi Arabia, Japan, Brunei Darussalam, Australia, and Canada. Nepal receives $50 million a calendar year with the Gurkha troopers who provide within the Indian and British armies and therefore are very esteemed for his or her ability and bravery. As of 2010, the whole remittance value is truly worth all around $3.five billion. In 2009 on your own, the remittance contributed to 22.9% of your nation's GDP.
A long-standing financial agreement underpins an in depth relationship with India. The nation gets overseas help from India, Japan, the uk, the US, the EU, China, Switzerland, and Scandinavian nations around the world. Poverty is acute; per-capita money is all-around $1,000. The distribution of prosperity amongst the Nepalis is steady with that in many developed and creating nations: the best 10% of families control 39.1% of the national prosperity plus the lowest 10% manage only two.6%.
The government's spending plan is about $1.153 billion, with expenditure of $1.789 billion (FY05/06). The Nepalese rupee has long been tied on the Indian Rupee at an trade price of 1.six for a few years. Considering the fact that the loosening of exchange level controls during the earlier 1990s, the black marketplace for foreign trade has all but disappeared. The inflation rate has dropped to 2.9% after a time period of upper inflation all through the nineties.
Nepal's exports of predominantly carpets, garments, leather-based goods, jute items and grain entire $822 million. Import commodities of generally gold, equipment and products, petroleum merchandise and fertiliser full US$2 bn. EU (46.13%), the US (17.4%), and Germany (7.1%) are its primary export companions. Just lately, the eu Union is now the largest consumer of Nepali all set designed garments (RMG). Exports towards the EU accounted for "46.13 % in the country’s whole garment exports". Nepal's import partners incorporate India (47.5%), the United Arab Emirates (11.2%), China (ten.7%), Saudi Arabia (four.9%), and Singapore (4%).
Besides obtaining landlocked, rugged geography, handful of tangible organic sources and poor infrastructure, the ineffective post-1950 authorities as well as long-running civil war is likewise an element in stunting the economic growth and progress.
Infrastructure
Energy
The majority of your power will need is dominated by gas solid wood (68%), agricultural waste materials (15%), animal dung (8%) and imported fossil fuel (8%). Besides for a few lignite deposits, Nepal has no well-known oil, gasoline or coal deposits. All professional non-renewable fuels (generally oil and coal) are both imported from India or from intercontinental marketplaces routed by way of India. Fuel imports take in in excess of one-fourth of Nepal's foreign exchange earnings.
Only about 1% electricity need to have is fulfilled by power. Paradoxically, the perennial mother nature of Nepali rivers and the steep gradient with the country's topography deliver perfect ailments for your improvement of several of the world's largest hydroelectric assignments in Nepal. Recent estimates put Nepal's economically possible hydropower potential to be approximately forty four,000 MW from 66 hydropower venture web pages. However, presently Nepal has been able to use only about 600 MW from 20 significant hydropower vegetation plus a variety of tiny and micro hydropower crops. There are actually nine key hydropower crops less than design, and extra 27 sites considered for possible development.
Only about 40% of Nepal's populace has use of electrical energy. Even in this situation there's an awesome disparity between urban and rural spots. Electrification level in urban area is ninety percent the place as that in rural area is 5 percent only. The place of energy market remains unsatisfactory for the reason that of substantial tariff, significant method losses, high generation expenditures, high overheads, about staffing and reduce domestic demand.
Transport
Nepal remains isolated with the world's main land, air and sea transportation routes although, within the region, aviation is within a greater condition, with 47 airports, eleven of these with paved runways; flights are recurrent and assist a large targeted visitors. The hilly and mountainous terrain inside the northern two-thirds of the region has created the constructing of roads together with other infrastructure hard and expensive. In 2007 there have been just more than 10,142 km (6,302 mi) of paved roadways, and seven,140 km (4,437 mi) of unpaved road, and one particular fifty nine km (37 mi) railway line in the south. There is certainly only one reliable highway path from India on the Kathmandu Valley.
The only simple seaport of entry for products sure for Kathmandu is Calcutta in India. Internally, the bad condition of progress on the road program (22 of 75 administrative districts absence street inbound links) helps make quantity distribution unrealistic.
Communication
Although the 1st telephones lines ended up launched in Kathmandu in 1913, it absolutely was not until eventually 1955 that phone lines were dispersed on the public. Similarly, both of those the telegram program and high frequency radio method (AM) were launched in 1950. The very first community telephone trade was put together in Kathmandu (300 lines CB) in 1962, whereas the 1st automated exchange was set up in 1965 (one thousand lines in Kathmandu). By 1995, Nepal experienced fitted optical fiber network too; while the GSM expert services had been released in 1999.
İn accordance with the Nepal Telecommunication Authority MIS May possibly 2012 report, you will discover 7 operators as well as total voice telephony subscribers which includes PSTN and mobile phone are 16,350,946 which give the penetration amount of 61.42%. The mounted phone assistance account for nine.37%, cellular for 64.63%, radio 53.10%, television 22.fifty, and Internet 3.3%, and also other services (LM, GMPCS) for three.76% on the entire penetration fee. Equally, the quantities of subscribers to data/internet services are four,667,536 which represents 17.53% penetration price. Many of the info assistance is accounted by GPRS consumers. Twelve months previously the data/internet penetration was ten.05%, hence this signifies a progress level of 74.77%.
Not just has there been strong subscriber development, specifically in the mobile sector, but there was data of a clear vision during the sector, which include putting a reform approach in position and organizing for that setting up of necessary telecommunications infrastructure. Most importantly, the Ministry of Information and Communications (MoIC) plus the telecom regulator, the Nationwide Telecommunications Authority (NTA), have both of those been pretty effective within the overall performance of their respective roles. İn spite of every one of the effort, there remained a major disparity between the high protection degrees inside the cities and also the protection available within the underdeveloped rural regions. Development on offering some minimum amount entry were very good, nevertheless. Of the full of 3,914 Village Advancement Committees across the country, only 306 had been unserved by December 2009. In purchase to fulfill upcoming need, it absolutely was approximated that Nepal wanted to invest all around US$135 million yearly in its telecom sector. In 2009, the telecommunication market on your own contributed to 1% with the nation's GDP. As of 30 September 2012, Nepal has 1,828,seven hundred Facebook users.
In the broadcast media, as of 2007, the state operates 2 tv stations too as nationwide and regional radio stations. You will discover roughly thirty impartial Tv set channels registered, with only about half in standard procedure. Approximately 400 FM radio stations are certified with around 300 operational. İn keeping with the Press Council Nepal, as of 2012 you can find 2038 registered newspapers in Nepal, between which 514 are in publication.
Two most important conversation providers are Nepal Telecom and Ncell, other people becoming Good day Nepal, UTL and Wise Mobile.
Education
Main post: İnstruction in Nepal
About two thirds of female older people and just one third of male grownups are illiterate. İnternet primary enrollment rate was 74% in 2005. It is presently at about 90%. In 2009 the globe Bank has chose to lead a further $130 million in direction of meeting Nepal's İnstruction for All ambitions. Nepal has numerous universities: Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu University, Pokhara College, Purbanchal College, and Mahendra Sanskrit College. The proposed universities are Lumbini Bouddha College, Mid-Western College, Far-Western University, and Nepal Agriculture and Forestry College.
Health
Primary post: Well being in Nepal
Health and fitness treatment companies in Nepal are delivered by equally the private and non-private sector and fares poorly by international specifications. Based on Earth Health and fitness Organisation (WHO) information, Nepal rated 139 in daily life expectancy in 2010 together with the regular Nepalese dwelling to sixty five.8 decades. Condition prevalence is better in Nepal than it really is in other South Asian nations, especially in rural spots. Top rated diseases and health problems contain diarrhea, gastrointestinal conditions, goiter, intestinal parasites, leprosy, visceral leishmaniasis and tuberculosis. As outlined by WHO facts for 2010, about four from one,000 older people aged 15 to 49 had human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), as well as the HIV prevalence fee was 0.5%. In spite of those figures, some improvements in wellness care have been manufactured, most notably its considerable development in maternal-child well being. One example is, Nepal’s HDI for health was 0.seventy seven in 2011, ranking Nepal 126 out of 194 international locations, up from 0.444 in 1980.
Crime and regulation enforcement
Major posting: Regulation enforcement in Nepal
See also: Criminal offense in Nepal , Directorate of Armed forces Intelligence, Nepal , and National Investigation Division of Nepal
Legislation enforcement in Nepal is mostly the accountability of your Nepalese Police Force which happens to be the nationwide police of Nepal. It is unbiased from the Nepalese Army. In the days of its institution, Nepal Police staff were being mainly drawn from the armed forces with the Nepali Congress Celebration which fought versus feudal Rana autocracy in Nepal. Central Investigation Bureau(CIB) and Countrywide Investigation Department of Nepal (NID) will be the investigation agencies of Nepal. They've places of work in all 75 administrative districts which include area offices in 5 areas and Zonal offices in fourteen Zones. Quantities differs from a few to 5 members at each individual district degree in rural districts and figures could be higher in urban districts. They have got both of those Household and International surveillance unit which mainly offers with cross border terrorists, drug trafficking, income laundering.
Money punishment is was abolished in Nepal in 1997.
In 2008, the Nepalese authorities abolished the Haliya procedure of forced labour, releasing about 20,000 persons.
Demographics
Key article: Demographics of Nepal
Populace density map of Nepal
Nepal's inhabitants grew from 9 million people in 1950 to 26.5 million in 2011. For the time of the 1981 census, the inhabitants was fifteen million as well as the common family members was produced up of 5.8 people. The inhabitants was 23 million in 2001 with a subsequent household measurement fall from five.forty four to four.9 from 2001-2011. Some 1.nine million absentee population was noted in 2011, around one million much more than in 2001, most remaining male staff. This correlated along with the drop in sex ratio from ninety four.41 when compared with ninety nine.eighty for 2001. İn line with 2011 census, the annual inhabitants expansion fee is 1.35%.
The Nepalese are descendants of 3 key migrations from India, Tibet, and North Burma and also the Chinese province of Yunnan through Assam. Even if Indo-Nepalese migrants have been latecomers to Nepal relative towards the migrants from your north, they've arrive at dominate the country don't just numerically, but additionally socially, politically, and economically.
Amid the earliest inhabitants were being the Kirat of east mid-region, Newar from the Kathmandu Valley and aboriginal Tharu within the southern Terai region. The ancestors in the Brahmin and Chetri caste groups came from India's existing Kumaon, Garhwal and Kashmir areas, although other ethnic teams trace their origins to North Burma and Yunnan and Tibet, e.g. the Gurung and Magar within the west, Rai and Limbu within the east (from Yunnan and north Burma via Assam), and Sherpa and Bhutia inside the north (from Tibet).
In the Terai, a part of the Ganges Basin with 20% in the land, significantly of the populace is bodily and culturally related for the Indo-Aryans of northern India. Indo-Aryan and East-Asian-looking mixed individuals live in the hill region. Indo-Aryan ancestry continues to be a supply of prestige in Nepal for centuries, and the ruling households are actually of Indo-Aryan and Hindu background. The mountainous highlands are sparsely populated. Kathmandu Valley, from the middle hill region, constitutes a small fraction with the nation's space but will be the most densely populated, with just about 20% from the populace.
Nepalese adult females dancing in Teej
Nepal is a multilingual society.
These facts are largely derived from Nepal's 2001 census benefits published within the Nepal İnhabitants Report 2002.
According to the world Refugee Study 2008, published from the US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Nepal hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers in 2007 numbering around a hundred thirty,000. Of this inhabitants, approximately 109,2 hundred persons ended up from Bhutan and twenty,500 from People's Republic of China. The federal government of Nepal confined ethnic Nepalese expelled from Bhutan to seven camps from the Jhapa and Morang districts, and refugees ended up not permitted to work in most professions. At this time, the us is functioning in direction of resettling extra than 60,000 of such refugees inside the US.
Regardless of the migration of the considerable portion of the population into the southern plains or terai recently, many the populace continue to lives while in the central highlands. The northern mountains are sparsely populated.
Kathmandu, having a populace of more than two.six million (metropolitan area: five million), will be the greatest metropolis within the nation.
Languages
Principal short article: Languages of Nepal
Nepal's diverse linguistic heritage advanced from several main language groups: Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman, Mongolian and different indigenous language isolates. The key languages of Nepal (p.c spoken as mother tongue) are Nepali (48.6%), Maithili (11.7%), Bhojpuri (six.0%), Tharu (5.8%), Tamang (five.1%), Newar/Nepal Bhasa (3.2%), Magar (2.4%), Rai (2.8%), Awadhi (two.5%), Limbu (1.5%), and Bajjika (1%). In addition, Nepal is house to at the least several indigenous indication languages.
Derived from Sanskrit, Nepali has roots in Sanskrit and is also composed in Devanagari script. Nepali is definitely the formal nationwide language and serves as lingua franca between Nepalis of various ethnolinguistic groups. Regional dialects Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Maithili and infrequently Hindi are spoken in the southern Terai Region. Lots of Nepalis in govt and small business converse English too. Dialects of Tibetan are spoken in and north with the higher Himalaya exactly where normal literary Tibetan is broadly understood by all those with non secular schooling. Regional dialects in the Terai and hills are primarily unwritten with efforts underway to produce devices for crafting quite a few in Devanagari or maybe the Roman abc.
Religion
Major write-up: Faith in Nepal
Pashupatinath Temple in Kathmandu, Nepal.
Nepal religiosity
religion percent
Hinduism
?
81.3%
Buddhism
?
9.0%
Islam
?
4.4%
Mundhum
?
3.0%
Christianity
?
1.4%
Other
?
0.4%
The overwhelming greater part of the Nepalese population follows Hinduism. Shiva is considered the guardian deity of your region. Nepal is home on the well-known Lord Shiva temple, the Pashupatinath Temple, in which Hindus from globally occur for pilgrimage. According to mythology, Sita Devi from the epic Ramayana, was born while in the Mithila Kingdom of King Janaka Raja.
Lumbini is really a Buddhist pilgrimage internet site and UNESCO World Heritage Site internet site while in the Kapilavastu district. Customarily it is held for being the birthplace in about 563 B.C. of Siddhartha Gautama, a Kshatriya caste prince of your Sakya clan, who, given that the Buddha Gautama, gave start towards the Buddhist custom.
The holy web site of Lumbini is bordered by a large monastic zone, through which only monasteries can be crafted. All about three primary branches of Buddhism exist in Nepal as well as the Newa everyone has their own branch in the religion. Buddhism is likewise the dominant faith with the thinly populated northern regions, which are mainly inhabited by Tibetan-related peoples, for example the Sherpa.
The Buddha, born as being a Hindu, is also explained for being a descendant of Vedic Sage Angirasa in lots of Buddhist texts. The Buddha's family surname is linked with Gautama Maharishi. Discrepancies between Hindus and Buddhists are actually minimum in Nepal due to cultural and historic intermingling of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. Morever ordinarily Buddhism and Hinduism were never ever two unique religions within the western feeling from the phrase. In Nepal, the faiths reveal prevalent temples and worship common deities. Among the other natives of Nepal, those much more affected by Hinduism have been the Magar, Sunwar, Limbu and Rai along with the Gurkhas. Hindu impact is significantly less distinguished among the the Gurung, Bhutia, and Thakali teams who make use of Buddhist monks for their spiritual ceremonies. Much of the festivals in Nepal are Hindu. The Machendrajatra festival, focused to Hindu Shaiva Siddha, is widely known by lots of Buddhists in Nepal being a main competition. Because it is considered that Ne Muni founded Nepal, some vital priests in Nepal are named "Tirthaguru Nemuni". Islam is actually a minority religion in Nepal, with four.2% in the populace being Muslim based on a 2006 Nepalese census. Mundhum, Christianity and Jainism are other minority faiths.
Largest cities
Narayanhiti Palace Museum
The 13 biggest towns in 2011 by populace as for each census 2011)
Kathmandu (17,forty four,240)*
Pokhara (Pop.: 264,991)
Lalitpur (Pop.: 226,728)
Biratnagar (Pop.: 204,949)
Bharatpur (Pop.: 147,777)
Birganj (Pop.: 139,068)
Butwal (Pop.: one hundred twenty,982)
Dharan (Pop.: 119,915)
Dhangadhi (Pop.: 104,047)
Janakpur (Pop.: 98,446)
Hetauda (Pop.:eighty five,653)
Madhyapur Thimi(Pop.:84,142)
Bhaktapur(Pop.: eighty three,658)
Culture
Main articles or blog posts: Customs of Nepal and Songs of Nepal
Devotees with the Festival Chhath Parva in Janakpur, Nepal.
Traditional Nepalese cuisine- (Dal bhat)
A standard Nepalese meal is Dal bhat. Dal is really a spicy lentil soup, served around bhat (boiled rice), served with tarkari (curried greens) with each other with achar (pickles) or chutni (spicy condiment produced from contemporary elements). It is made of non-vegetarian in addition as vegetarian products served with non-alcoholic beverages. Mustard oil could be the cooking medium along with a host of spices, such as cumin, coriander, black peppers, sesame seeds, turmeric, garlic, ginger, methi (fenugreek), bay leaves, cloves, cinnamon, pepper, chillies, mustard seeds, and many others., are used in the cooking. The cuisine served on festivals is generally the most beneficial.
Folklore is really an integral part of Nepalese modern society. Traditional stories are rooted while in the actuality of day-to-day daily life, tales of affection, affection and battles too as demons and ghosts and therefore mirror area life, cultures and beliefs. Many Nepalese folktales are enacted throughout the medium of dance and new music.
The Nepali 12 months starts in mid-April and it is divided into 12 months. Saturday is definitely the formal weekly getaway. Key yearly vacations involve the Nationwide Day, celebrated to the birthday from the king (28 December), Prithvi Jayanti (eleven January), Martyr's Day (eighteen February), plus a blend of Hindu and Buddhist festivals like dashain in autumn, and tihar in late autumn. All through tihar, the Newar local community also celebrates its New Calendar year as for every their area calendar Nepal Sambat.
Most houses in rural lowland of Nepal are created up of a restricted bamboo framework and partitions of the mud and cow-dung mix. These dwellings remain great in summer months and keep warmth in wintertime. Residences in the hills are usually built of unbaked bricks with thatch or tile roofing. At superior elevations building changes to stone masonry and slate may be utilized on roofs.
Nepal's flag would be the only national flag inside the planet that is definitely not rectangular in form. İn keeping with its official description, the red within the flag means victory in war or courage, and is also shade of your rhododendron, the national flower of Nepal. Red-colored also means aggression. The flag's blue border signifies peace. The curved moon around the flag is actually a symbol of your relaxing and relaxed character of Nepalese, even though the sun represents the aggressiveness of Nepalese warriors. |
